I took a few years away from studying European art to learn more about Chinese art than is covered by the excellent A World History of Art by Hugh Honour & John Fleming (Laurence King Publishing 2009). Public libraries in England have shelves full of books on European art but publications of standard authors on Chinese art – Michael Sullivan, James Cahill, Craig Clunas – are hard to find. Almost all the books I’ve read on Chinese art have been borrowed from academic libraries.
Given this lack, presumption overtook me (lightly camouflaged as altruism) and I decided to write a History of Chinese Art. Below in pdf form are 9 parts, each usually about 50 pages long. Do not be daunted, however, as each part has many more pictures than pages. Thus, the text-averse can skip quickly through the documents and read only about those artists whose works appeal. The pictures are usually high resolution, so zooming in may help, especially to look at landscapes. The two parts covering the 20th century are longer than the others, but have twice as many pictures. Some eras will be more interesting than others, so below is a summary for each part.
Part 1. To the end of the Tang Dynasty, 907 (51 pages, 80 pictures) –> 1_Tang Art began mainly for ceremonies and burials, but gradually appeared as decoration and in shows of wealth. Calligraphy was revered as the means to communicate with gods and ancestors. During this period different styles of script developed, and there emerged a strong link between calligraphy and painting. Figure painting at the imperial court developed during the Tang and the dynasty marked the beginning of landscape painting. The genre is regarded as high art by the Chinese. Mountains and rivers have been considered sacred since remote times and qi, the cosmic life-force, was believed to be exhaled by mountains in the form of mist and clouds. Pilgrimages were made to the mountains to rejuvenate one’s spirit. Zong Bing’s wife originated the idea of landscape painting. When her husband was too old to wander up mountains, she painted scenes on the wall of their home: landscape as surrogate for pilgrimage. This era closes with Wang Wei, considered the prototype of the scholar-official who paints only in his spare time – the literati painter – superior to professional painters.
Part 2. Five Dynasties to the end of the Song, 908 – 1279 (51 pp, 75 pics) –> 2_Song Buddhist art was popular and new Chan (Zen) painting, spontaneous and intuitive, would prove an inspiration through the subsequent centuries. This was a great age for landscape painting. Northern Song monumental landscapes and the more atmospheric scenes of the rivers and rounded hills of the Southern Song developed. Many grand examples were painted by artists regarded as the first landscape masters. Under the guidance of Su Shi, features of literati art crystalized with subjects of trees, rock and bamboo, and the importance of an inscription. Bird and Flower paintings made their first appearance, so that by the end of the Song all the genres and styles of Chinese art were in place, some already with rich traditions.
Part 3. Yuan, 1271 – 1368 (45 pp, 55 pics) –> 3_Yuan Although China was over-run and administrated by the barbarian Mongols, the Yuan is one of the greatest ages of Chinese painting, dominated by stunning literati art, in which the poem became an integral part of both the message and the composition. At the beginning of the period officials loyal to the defeated Song dynasty, yimin, who refused to serve the foreign invader painted works of dissent and at the end, the Four Great Masters of the Yuan expressed the turmoil of the deterioration of Mongol rule and their sense of isolation. In between, landscape and calligraphy were revitalised and various styles of painting bamboo developed.
Part 4. Early and middle Ming, 1369-1560 (57 pp, 90 pics) –> 4_Ming_Early_Middle The Zhe School departed from conservative court art, painting Southern Song landscapes with brushstrokes associated with the literati, with an eye on the new demand from rich merchants wanting bucolic scenes and large decorative paintings for reception halls. The beginning of a commercial art market is an important feature of the dynasty. During the first century of the Ming, scholars were executed in large numbers and their roles in government given to eunuchs, so literati art virtually disappeared. The Wu School – the Four Masters of the Ming – rescued and developed it, to the extent that scholarly art became immensely popular across China. Albums were sought-after as gifts and important works appeared in this new form. The first two Masters started using colour, which would have appalled their predecessors. The last two Masters used stronger colour and adopted some professional practices so they could sell their paintings (even more appalling for their ancestors) in a burgeoning market for literati art which grew as Suzhou and Hangzhou became the economic centres of the empire.
Part 5. Late Ming, 1560 – 1644 (43 pp, 60 pics) –> 5_Ming_Late The art market created a demand from women among the merchant class and gentry for works of art produced by women. Relatives of scholars and professionals filled the breach, joined by talented courtesan-painters. New forms of bird and flower paintings appeared; monochrome in a sketchy style (xieyi) and with a wet-on-wet technique which produced sensational effects. Don Qichang, China’s ace theoretician, the late Ming’s most notable artist and the dynasty’s most celebrated calligrapher, lamented the influence of the art market; hack painters were knocking out copies of early Ming masters and had never set eyes on the works of the Yuan and Song greats. Don Qichang reversed this degeneration of literati art and created a new mode of landscape painting, moving towards abstraction through a patterned surface and repetition of forms with a cool rhythm. As a result of Don Qichang’s art theory, albums of paintings in the manner of Yuan and Song masters became very popular commercially. Don Qichang did no paintings in the style of monumental Northern Song landscapes and these had been largely ignored by the Ming, but the genre enjoyed a revival at the end of the dynasty. The arrival of Jesuits sparked a brief interest in landscapes in a European manner.
Part 6. Qing to Qianlong emperor, 1644 – 1735 (46 pp, 70 pics) –> 6_Qing_1 Some scholar-officials reacted to the foreign Manchu invader as their predecessors had to the Mongols, but the Ming loyalists produced much more varied and inventive art; most notably Shitao, but also Zhu Da and Kuncan. In contrast to these great Individualists, the theory of Don Qichang was sustained by the Orthodox School, notably the Four Wangs, of whom Wang Yuanqi was regarded as the best. Yun Shouping produced gorgeous natural paintings of flowers in the boneless style, which look as if the plants are alive in the garden. His female descendant Yun Bing carried on this style, painting wonderful albums. She and her female friend, Ma Quan, were important flower painters of the Qing. The Kangxi emperor had used Jesuit expertise, particularly in artillery, in quelling rebellion and the art of Catholic missionaries exerted a fascination at court, notably through Castiglione, but had no lasting effect on Chinese art.
Part 7. Later Qing, 1736 – 1911 (40 pp, 70 pics) –> 7_Qing_2 The Qianlong emperor’s inspection tours produced important landscape scrolls, but the feature of his reign was yet more growth in the art market which became increasingly competitive, forcing artists to adopt novelties to stand out from the crowd. The Eccentrics of Yangzhou, led by Jin Nong whose calligraphy and painting contrasted beautifully in his art, led the way: bamboo, pine, plum, orchids were given new life; historical figures were resurrected and even ghosts appeared. Gao Qipei produced astonishing works with his fingers. Rank exploitation by European powers (led by Britain) and famine (produced by a rapidly growing population and a neglectful Manchu administration) produced rebellions, starting the descent to collapse. In the midst of this Shanghai prospered, and her merchants and middle-class demanded colourful and vigorous art. This was provided by the Shanghai School, who used literati touches in paintings of historical figures, landscapes, birds and (notably) flowers in rich colours. Discontent with Manchu rule was expressed by the Stele School which preferred traditional Han script to the calligraphy used at court and produced wonderful hanging scrolls of poetic couplets.
Part 8. Republic, 1911-1948 (57 pp, 125 pics) –> 8_Republic Some artists reasserted traditional Chinese styles. Qi Baishi painted all manner of subjects in simple but lifelike fashion, using the strong colour of the Shanghai School, whose flower paintings continued to thrive. Landscapes were painted by Huang Binhong, in an impressionistic manner, and Fu Baoshi, with lively surfaces and often with towering waterfalls. Conversely, the feeling that China should modernise, meant other painters attempted a synthesis with Western art. This produced uneven results. The most successful artists and leaders of the modern movement were Liu Haisu and Lin Fengmian who formed their own style rather than simply adopting a hybrid of techniques: both believed in self-expression. All this art was for educated folk. The violence of life and a spate of executions in China prompted a desire for art which appealed to the masses and depicted the cruelty of the government and warlords. From this aspiration the Woodcut Movement was formed and soon produced prints of suffering and resistance during the fight against Japanese invaders. Painters also contributed, the most striking works being those of Jiang Zhaohe. Forced to flee west from war, painters discovered the diversity of China and thus began an important theme in modern Chinese art: the depiction of minority people and their lands.
Part 9. People’s Republic of China (PRC), 1949 – 1980s (72 pp, 170 pics) –> 9_PRC Soviet Socialist Realist style was the prescribed form of art early in the PRC, implemented in oils and also affecting prints. Traditional Chinese painting largely was limited to figures. Through this period, party policy lurched unpredictably between heavy control and sudden relaxation. Many painters caught departing from the party line were punished. Approval for landscapes from life eased the pressure on traditional painters and further relaxations in the early 1960s meant lyrical art was produced. This was ended by the Cultural Revolution. Artists, even those formerly celebrated by the Communists, suffered greatly. This torment lasted a decade. Many painters had fled China in 1949. They brought modern art to Taiwan, predominantly through the abstract expressionism of the Fifth Moon Group, and Singapore. In Hong Kong, where AbEx was already established, they brought a strong Chinese flavour to art, particularly with Chan painting. In the 1980s in China photorealism was strong, especially paintings of minorities in oils. Artists were able to explore Western influences, and some of their works expressed disillusionment. Traditional Chinese themes were revived and revitalised: literati techniques and subjects, landscapes, including eccentric works, and bird and flower painting. Wu Guanzhong brought new expression to old literati subjects and to landscapes. By the end of the decade Chinese art had escaped the stranglehold of the party.
Hopefully this is interesting. Learning and writing about Chinese art was hugely enjoyable and satisfying. Now I will return to studying European art and the 17th century. My notes on European art will be too long to be posted here (so far, from early Greek times to the end of the 16th century, there are 480 pages and 660 pictures; half of that on the 16th century). However, I may post other histories in coming years.
Under comments (below), Tristan is interested in rain scenes in Chinese art. I’ve searched briefly. There are quite a few in the 20th century but not many earlier than that. Here’s a pdf of the examples I found –> Rainy_Landscapes (Bamboo in rain paintings are included in the pdfs above.)
An Occasional Cricket Statistician 